4. Waldemar G. Klee, Pioneer in agriculture and in the biological control of insect pests
WG Klee (1853-1891) is the male founder of the American branch of the Klee family. During his short life, he migrated from Denmark to the US at about age 19. He gained further education to become an agricultural scientist and entomologist, married, owned a ranch in Santa Cruz, CA (Gravenstein Ranch- named after a type of apple) and fathered three children. For his descendants, all of Waldemar's scientific achievements were lost and forgotten after his untimely death in 1891 at age 38. But they haven't been entirely forgotten by the world. I have discovered a considerable amount of information regarding WG Klee in libraries throughout the USA and on the Internet. He was an agricultural scientist at the Agriculture Experimental Station of the University of California, Berkeley and published monographs that played an important role in establishing the commercial cultivation of various fruit crops, such as dates, olive, citrus fruits and a variety of others. Except for citrus fruits, most of these crops had not been developed in California (Or, in many cases, anywhere in the US.) Today, California grows and exports billions of dollars of fruit each year, in part, thanks to Waldemar Klee and the few other scientists like him in his day. WG Klee was also State Inspector of Insect Pests. The following information that I found on the Internet and in a computerized search of libraries throughout the US, reveals WG Klee to have been a pioneer in the biological control of insect pests. The link below, describes how WG Klee liberated Cryptochaetum flies on cottony-cushion scale in San Mateo County near San Francisco in early 1888. These flies preyed on and killed the cottony cushion scale that was attacking citrus trees. Many citrus groves benefited from this. Prior to that time, chemical pesticides were the only alternative. I will go into this in greater detail below. Although I am including only a fraction of the material, it is still a formidable amount of detail. An agricultural scientist may complain that there is insufficient detail, but the average reader may decide to skip over some of the technical details. For those readers, I have attempted to provide a non-technical summary interspersed with the details.
Gerald D’Arcy Klee, Webmaster/Editor
The first exhibit is a letter to the LA Times in 1887. I came across this in a search on the Internet. It is much easier to read than most of what follows. It was written before Waldemar learned of the very promising results of his experiments to control insect pests by the use of insects that prey upon the ones damaging the fruit trees.
After you read it, you may wonder, as I do, what would Waldemar say about California if he saw it now? Would he approve of what Los Angeles has become? And what would he think and feel about the fact that Santa Clara, the location of his ranch, is now in the heart of Silicon Valley? GDK
Correspondence of Prof. WG Klee; Letter to Los Angeles Times, Oct. 7, 1887,
"A Warning" On the subject of preserving citrus orchards
by WG Klee, STATE INSPECTOR OF FRUIT PESTS.
http://www.csupomona.edu/~reshaffer/agrix.htm
{LATimes, Oct. 7, 1887, p. 2}
Los Angeles, Oct. 6.--[To the Editor of The Times.]
I have spent the last week in looking over the various parts of this county, so rich and varied in its resources. Everywhere I hear the carpenters' busy hammer, and the most wonderful activity is being displayed in building hotels, developing water, etc. Town after town is springing into existence, but with it, alas! the once beautiful orange orchards and vineyards are going to destruction. Orchards on which thousands of dollars have been spent, which but a short time ago were the pride of the owners, are falling victims to the merciless King "Boom." His retainers are the scale-bugs and all insect pests the vegetable kingdom is heir to.
In vain does the bona fide fruit-grower protest against the invasion of the merciless destroyer. The avalanche that rolls on him awes him, and before he knows it he succumbs to the apparent tempting pecuniary offers of the real-estate man, gives up his home and enters the field of speculation. Thus the fever of money-making, having started from Los Angeles and Pasadena, now reaches out far into San Gabriel and Santa Ana Valleys. I know many will say, "Hear the voice of the croaker; these things will right themselves after awhile, and don't amount to much after all. The money is here, and will come until all this country is settled up. We have our climate, the glorious sunshine, which even scale-bugs cannot deprive us of."
True, but this is becoming rather stale. Although the majority of the people come here for their health, they also come here with the expectation of making a living, and the industry which invariably is held up to them by the untiring real-estate man is the fruit industry, and especially that of growing of citrus fruits. Unless there is called a halt soon, and people awaken to the necessity of preserving the orange and lemon orchards, it will soon be a difficult matter to show the intending settler a healthy and profitable orchard in this county, and the goose that has been laying so many golden eggs will die.
I am well aware that the white scale is one of the most difficult insects to fight. I know that thousands of dollars have been spent on it, and that many people have become discouraged trying, chiefly because there was no concert of action. Whatever remedies are used, they must be used thoroughly, nor will one remedy suit every case, all of them will be failures unless everybody is willing to help.
People must be prepared for a little sacrifice in their gardens to help the common cause. People not directly interested in fruit-growing must remember that the prosperity of this country is largely due to the orange; that it has been the emblem of Southern California, and that they are called to defend it. We hope that in the coming meeting on Saturday the fruit-growers will show their presence in sufficient numbers to assert their rights.
We hope to be able to convince people that in the newly-discovered gas remedy may be of great service to the fruit-grower. Still it will need the ingenuity of the Yankee to make it more simple and easy in its applications, and it will also need capital to handle it successfully. To discuss these matters, we ask the presence of the fruit-grower, as well as everybody else interested in the welfare of the county.
I am yours truly,
W. G. KLEE.
State Inspector of Fruit Pests
"Thousands of dollars," says Prof. Klee, in a late article, "have been
expended in spraying and many have become discouraged trying." The reason for this
discouragement is that the expense has been altogether disproportionate to the
thoroughness of the work, too little care has been taken not to unnecessarily
injure the trees and the spraying has been done at too long intervals.
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WG Klee's articles and monographs on horticulture and entomology are long and technical, and are difficult to scan into text. I have had to leave out most of the tables and photographs. For readers who are interested in the technical details, I am including all of one article and parts of some of his longer articles and monographs, especially parts of his monograph on entomology. This is not a complete sample of his publications and each piece, except for the first, is presented incompletely.
I will start with "Observations on Olive Varieties" which is short, relatively simple, and is the only one which I have completely scanned into Microsoft word. This article was published in February 1890, about one year before Waldemar's death from tuberculosis. An August, 1890 letter from his wife, Jenny to Waldemar's sister Elise in Denmark reveals how sick he was by that time. Please see 5. Letters to and from Denmark 1890-1905; Letter from Jenny to Elise, August 1890
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
BERKELEY, CAL. Bulletin No. 85
OBSERVATIONS ON OLIVE VARIETIES, by WG Klee,
Gardener in Charge of Agricultural Grounds, University of California.
Web editor’s note: The word “Gardener” in Klee’s title is inaccurate as the term is used currently. “in Charge of Agricultural Grounds, University of California.” Is a more accurate description of Klee’s scientific position, as will be seen by his research as described below.
Preface, by E. W. Hilgard, Director of AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
The increasing prominence of olive culture in this State gives importance to all light that can be thrown upon the subject, the more as the slow growth of the tree renders mistakes made in the selection of varieties both costly and difficult of rectification. It is therefore the intention of the Station to subject both the growing trees and the fruit and its products to the most thorough comparative observation and investigation, as quickly as the material shall be obtainable. In the meantime, the observations of Mr. Klee, recorded below, appear of sufficient practical importance to justify their publication at this time.
It is evident that both with respect to the production of oil and that of pickled olives, the proportion of kernel to meat is a matter of no mean importance, when we see, as is shown below, that this proportion varies all the way from 8 to over 34 percent. Some have the impression that the oil of the kernel or pit forms a considerable proportion of the product, but the investigation of this point made by Mr. L. Paparelli upon the common olive of Central Italy, showed this proportion to be as one to 30; while in the Mission olive, noted for the rarity of sound kernels, the proportion was found by Mr. Ad. Sommer of the University, as one to 162. Hence to the oil-maker as well as to the consumer of pickled fruit, the data given will be of some interest.
E. W. Hilgard,
OBSERVATIONS BY W. G. KLEE
The following records and table show the growth of a number of varieties of olives, as the result of several years' observations, and it is hoped will add to our knowledge of some of the numerous varieties now cultivated in this State. This is, of course, only the beginning of observations which will be continued for years to come. Nearly all the varieties enumerated are now growing at the four different Experiment Stations, viz: Berkeley, Paso Robles, Jackson and Tulare; and we shall thus have a good opportunity to test their respective value in these four distinct sections. Those at Berkeley were planted five years ago; while those at the other stations were set out only a year ago, and thus afford but few data of value.
The observations of the varieties growing on the grounds of the California Nursery Co., Niles, and at Fancher Creek Nursery, Fresno, I have personally had the opportunity to make, through tile courtesy of their respective managers, Mr. John Rock, and G. C. Roeding, who, as well as Mr. Juan Gallegos of Mission San Jose, kindly allowed me to take specimens for identification.
In the text following the table only a description of the fruit is given, since the foliage varies so much as between old and young trees as to make it difficult of use as a distinctive mark. (WebEditor's note; I omitted the Tables that appeared in the original, because they are too large and complicated to show well here. GDKlee)*
In "Series I" the varieties are arranged in accordance with the proportion of the pit to the pulp, by bulk, as shown in the last column of the small table preceding their discussion. The measurements given represent, of course, the average of a greater or less number made on normal fruit. We can thus obtain a fair idea of the actual bulk of pulp contained in a gallon of the fruit. This, it is true, is only one of the factors that determine the value of the olive. The actual yield of oil, and the quality of the latter; remain to be determined hereafter; but the table, as it is, will serve for purposes of investigation, and is certainly of practical interest.
SERIES 1.
Regalis. -- Imported by John Rock from France. Almost perfectly rounded-oval; when ripe, dark purple or black; large, 1 1-16 inches long, by 13-16 in thickness; flesh, firm; pit 9-16 of an inch by 5-16 of an inch, generally straight, square at the base, pointed at the apex. Ripens slightly ahead of the broad-leaved Mission variety.
Manzanillo No. 1. -- Imported by F. Pohndorf from Spain, and grown by Juan Gallegos, Esq., at Mission San Jose; large, 1 inch long by 13-16 in thickness; regular rounded oval; pit, straight, strongly pointed at the apex, 9-16 of an inch long, 5-16 of an inch thick. Ripens early, several weeks earlier than the broad-leaved Mission. In many respects this resembles the Sevillano Gordal or Queen olive of Spain, more than any variety I have examined in this State. The fruit grows on long stems, and in a windy place would be liable to fall. The pulp parts readily with its bitterness, and is exceedingly rich when pickled.
Polymorpha. -- Imported by John Rock from France; very large, ovate, oblique and pointed; 1 3-16 inches long by 12-16 of an inch thick; pit 12-16 of an inch by 6-16 in thickness, square at the base, strongly pointed at the apex; flesh firm. Time of ripening falls much like the broad-leaved Mission; fruit grows on strong stems in clusters of two or three.
Macrocarpa, very much like above; we have not had specimens enough to make out a distinction.
Columbella. -- Imported by John Rock from France. General form, broadly oval, 14-16 of an inch long and 11-16 of an inch thick; very even in size, remarkable for the peculiar pale yellow color which all the fruit assumes before turning fully ripe and becoming dark purple; pit, small, 8-16 of an inch long by 5-16 of an inch in thickness; straight and sharp-pointed. The pulp seems to part with the bitterness slowly; but when extracted, the flavor is very rich. Ripens late -- later than the broad-leaved Mission.
Nevadillo Blanco. -- Imported by F. Pohndorf from Spain. Oval, slightly oblique, pointed, 1 inch long by 10-16 of an inch thick; resembling somewhat a broad-leaved Mission, but is generally more elongated in proportion to its diameter than the latter. Pit, small, curved and generally pointed at both ends; 10-16 of an inch long by 4-16 of an inch thick. The fruit is borne in clusters of three to five. Its time of ripening does not appear to be much earlier than the broad-leaved Mission.
This variety has been propagated considerably at the nursery of the Experimental Station, and has been scattered widely by distribution from here during the last two or three years. The reports received from these trees go to show that it is a remarkably robust and fast grower in the hottest as well as in the coolest portion of the State. Should this olive prove a good and constant bearer, as there is every reason to believe, it will prove a valuable addition to our varieties of olives. Its time of ripening may be an objection to its planting in localities near the coast, subject to early frosts. Reports indicate that it is more tender to frost than certain other varieties -- a fact which is undoubtedly due to its almost constant growth, and shows that moist soil should be avoided for this variety perhaps more than for any other.
Manzanillo No. 2. -- Imported by F. Pohndorf from Spain. As the name ("small apple") indicates, this variety is of an unusual shape, only one -- the Dalmatian (Hervaza) resembling it. It is nearly round, with a- pit of rounded oval shape, rather squarely cut off at the base. As the specimens were few and not quite fully grown, measurements are not given. This va-riety ripens early -- several weeks earlier than the broad-leaved Mission olive; the fruit grows generally singly on long stems.
This variety, which I have seen fruiting in Fancher Creek Nursery near Fresno, has the same straggling and sparse growth which characterizes the variety I have designated as Manzanillo No. 1. It is supposed to be this variety (No. 2) which has been disseminated from the Station, although, as Mr. Gallegos has received the other variety (No. 1) from the same source as we, under the name of Manzanillo, the two may have been mixed, the wood and foliage being much alike.
Pendulina. --Imported by John Rock from France. This variety is of an even oval shape, rounded at both ends, quite variable in size, many fruits remaining small and undeveloped; 12-16 of an inch long and 9-16 of an inch thick; pit, 7-16 of an inch long and 4-16 of an inch thick, exclusive of the small, sharp points often found at both ends. The fruit grows in clusters of from two to five; the pulp parts very readily with its bitterness. This variety must not be con- founded with the Pendoulier -- a variety imported by Mr. Albert Montpellier and fruited at his place at Vacaville. The latter variety is somewhat larger and more of an ovate shape.
Oblonga. -- Imported by John Rock from France, An olive of a peculiar club-like shape, being narrow at the stem end, broad at the point, rounded and strongly oblique, 15-16 of an inch long and 8-16 of an inch in thickness; pit, curved, 11-16 of an inch long by, 4-16 of an inch in thickness; generally pointed at both ends. The pulp loses its bitterness comparatively quickly, in pickling. This olive ripens quite early -- at least two to three weeks earlier than the broad-leaved Mission; color, dark purple.
Coutance, as well as several other authors on the olive, gives the name of the Picholine as synonymous of Oblonga. As a matter of fact, the olive imported by Mr. Rock under the name of Oblonga is a totally different-looking olive from the variety described and pictured in the Annals of the School of Montpellier (and translated in Mr. Lelong's pamphlet on olive varieties) as the Picholine. Rock's Oblonga seems to me to belong in the neighborhood of the Lucques.
Common or Broad-leaved Mission Olive. -- The variety of olive most generally known as the Mission; 13-16 of an inch long by 10-16 of an inch thick; ovate, oblique-sometimes very much so. The pit straight or slightly curved, 10-16 of an inch long and 5-16 of an inch thick; fruit very variable in size, growing singly or in clusters of two or three or even five. Time of ripening, late in the coast region; sometimes not-before February, but generally in December. In warmer localities, in November.
Rubra, or Caillon. -- Imported by John Rock from France; ovate, slightly oblique, looks a good deal like a small Mission olive, 12-16 of an long and 8 16 of an inch thick; pit straight, pointed, 8-16 of an inch long and 4-16 of an inch thick. This variety is an early one, and ripened 3 to 4 weeks earlier than the common Mission variety, is of a jet black when ripe. This variety, it appears, has. been imported by several different persons; among others Mr. Bliss of Riverside, on whose place I saw trees of it three years ago, heavily laden with fruit.
Uvaria. -- Imported by John Rock from France. Oval, regular, and rounded on both ends; 13-16 of an inch long and 9-16 of an inch in thickness; pit straight, heavy, 10-16 of an inch in length and 6-16 of an inch in thickness. Late; later than the common Mission olive. Color, dark purple or black when ripe. The name, "grape-like," is well chosen; the fruit growing in clusters, as many as seven together, and in shape themselves resembling the grape.
"Redding Picholine." -- Imported by the late B. B. Redding. A perfect oval in shape, 8-16 of an inch long and 6-16 of an inch thick; pit, 6-16 of an inch long- by 4-10 of an inch thick. Ripens early; several weeks earlier than the common "Mission;" dark purple or black when ripe, In pickling, the pulp loses the bitterness quickly, the fruit being, very pleasant. This variety has been propagated extensively in the State and until fruiting, was supposed to be a large pickling variety; then, not having an adequate description of the Picholine at hand, it was believed for a number of years to be rightly named after all; various authors designating the Picholine as a small olive. Two years ago, in the annals of the School of Montpellier, France, there-appeared a description of the Picholine as known there. Mr. B. M. Lelong had this promptly translated for his report, and deserves credit for having thus settled that the variety of Redding's introduction is not the French Picholine. The Redding Picholine, which name has naturally suggested itself for want of a better, has produced oil of good quality. In proportion of pulp to pit it is but slightly inferior to the Italian Mignolo or Gremignolo (judging from Caruso's description). The only record in regard to the yield of oil I have had occasion to examine into, was made several years ago by Mr. L. A. Gould, then of Auburn, who, from 2500 pounds of olives, chiefly Picholine, only obtained 24 gallons of oil, making a percentage of 7.04. The Italian Mignolo in Caruso's work, measures only 9-16 of an inch, with a thickness of 7-16 of an inch; the pit being large, 8-16 of an inch long by 4-10 of an inch thick, Which places it very near the Redding Picholine. The strong recommendation of this olive by the Italian authorities, for foggy regions, makes this variety nevertheless interesting and worthy of trial in such places.
SERIES II.
Of these no measurements have been made, but some record of growth and general behavior is given in the preceding table.
Atrorubens. -- Imported by J. Rock. According to Coutance synonymous with Salierne or Sayerne, of a violet black color, covered with bluish bloom, rounded at the base, pointed at the top. Cultivated throughout Languedoc; valuable for oil.
Olea atroviolacea. -- Imported by J. Rock from France. A good-sized olive, making oil of first quality, according to soil.
Razzo or Frantojano. -Imported by Judge J. R. Logan of Santa Cruz. An olive from the Lucca district in Italy. Oval, medium size or below; it yields in its native country a very fine oil.
Corregiolo. or Grossajo, or Frantojo. - Imported by Judge J. R. Logan of Santa Cruz. An olive from the Lucca and Pisa district in Italy, furnishing some of the finest oil. Fruit medium-sized, of inverted oval (obovate) shape, narrow at the stem end, broader toward the point.
Amellou or Olea amygdalina. -- Imported by Mr. C. A. Wetmore. A large, valuable variety, both for oil and pickles.
Lucque or Olea adorata, also imported by Mr. Wetmore. A peculiar almond-shaped olive; one of the richest for pickles.
Mission Varieties. -- A number of years ago my attention was called to the fact that there existed several distinct forms or varieties of "Mission" olives. We are propagating now three apparently quite distinct. kinds. A. Broad-leaved or common Mission (already described). B. Narrow-leaved Mission, a variety received originally from L. A. Gould of Auburn, described as having a somewhat larger fruit than the common Mission, and a more straggling habit. C. Early Mission, procured from A. A. Wheeler. It is of the Mission type, but ripens at the end of October in Alameda county. At Pomona, my attention was called to an old, large tree growing on the ground of Rev. Mr. Loop, which he stated bore a large; olive, ripening in October. Whether the two are identical or not, I do not know.
Oblitza, obtained from Mr. Geo. Ladd of Atwater; imported.by the late N. Milco from Dalmatia. This variety fruited at Atwater station, and resembles somewhat the, variety called Pendoulier, specimens of which are fruiting at the ranch of A. Montpellier, near Vacaville. Further examination is necessary to determine whether the two are identical.
Hervaza, obtained from the same source as the above. This variety much resembles the Manzanillo in shape, but the pit of the fruit is more squarely cut off than that of the latter. The trees of the two varieties are totally distinct. The Manzanillo has an upright, sparse growth and dark-colored wood. The Hervaza is of drooping habit and the wood is light-colored. Time of ripening of the two falls about the same at Atwater; viz., in the beginning of October.
W. G. KLEE.
Berkeley. Feb. 15, 1890.
*Tables have been omitted. -------------------------------- ------------------ -------------------
Culture of the Date is another one of WG Klee's horticultural articles from the University of California. His title of "Gardener" is misleading, but the rest of his title in Charge of Agricultural Grounds, University of California, is more explanatory of his actual role. Since it is difficult to scan or copy the whole article to Word, I am including only the title page and the first page of the article. GDKlee, Editor
CULTURE OF THE DATE
By W. G. KLEE,
Gardener in Charge of Agricultural Grounds, University of California Web editor’s note: The word “Gardener” in Klee’s title is inaccurate as the term is used currently. “in Charge of Agricultural Grounds, University of California.” Is a more accurate description of Klee’s scientific position, as will be seen by his research as described below.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WASHINGTON, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1883
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The cultivation of the date has thus far received but little attention in the United States, although there are within. their limits several climatic regions apparently adapted to the successful growth of this important tree. Single date-palms or small groups may be found occasionally in the Southern States, planted for ornamental purposes; but their fruit, if it has been produced at all, has hardly been mentioned. They are more commonly seen in Southern California, but even here they have been considered rather as a reminiscence of the groves of the Spanish coast than in the light of a fruit-bearing tree. The publication of an exhaustive monograph on the date-tree and its culture in the Old World, by Theob. Fisher (see Peterman's Geogr. Mittheilungen, Erganzungsheft No. 64), has been the occasion for a review on my part of the results hitherto obtained in that direction in this country.
The outcome of this study has seemed so encouraging as to the success of date culture, on. the Pacific coast at least, that I have deemed it desirable to place these results, together with an abstract of Professor Fisher's monograph, before the American public.
DATE CULTURE IN THE CALIFORNIAS.
To the early mission fathers we must doubtless ascribe the honor of first having given the impulse to fruit-growing in the Californias, especially to the raising of those fruits peculiar to their native land. Add along the coast, from Lower California to the central part of the State of to-day, they have deft their traces, and around the old mission sites we still find many venerable-looking trees, which, if they could speak, would tell many a quaint story.
Nearly always we find the olive here, this hardy- tree having survived the neglect of decennials. From the missions the grape-vine, now cultivated all over California under the name of native or Mission grape, has spread, and in its track have followed the fig the orange, lemon, and lime, pomegranate, and others of less importance. But besides these we find the date-palm; a tree not properly belonging to Spain, being there rather an ornamental plant, and cultivated successfully in only a few places. The far-sighted monks saw the great similarity of climate, especially of that of Lower California, to that of the true date countries, and, as we shall presently see, their attempts were crowned with full success, at least in this region, while their example of planting in upper California gave the impulse to planting in more suitable localities in this latitude.
In Lower California, especially at Mullise and Loreto, the date-palm is cultivated regularly, and the product is sold in Guynas, on the opposite side of the Gulf. Of the source of these plantations we have no
certain information, but from what I have learned of Mr Carlos Gompertz (late of the University of California), for a long time a resident of Guynas, and who has traveled extensively through Mexico, it appears that all the oldest date plantations in Sonora, are at the missions, or in their immediate vicinity, and there is therefore every reason to believe that here also they were introduced by the mission fathers. From his statement a as well as others, it appears that dates are cultivated regularly in Southern Sonora, and when attended carefully and receiving plenty of water they ripen delicious fruit, which in places are eaten as real food. The fact that the date thrives in Sonora, in a climate where heavy summer rains prevail, would at first seem to indicate that the fruiting of the date palm is not confined to as distinct and peculiar a climate as the investigations of its culture in the Old World would lead us to believe. Closer examination, however, shows that the conditions here are, very similar to those of Punjab, the northwest province of India, where summer rains do not seem to be detrimental to the date, because occurring chiefly during July and August, while the time of blooming and that of fruit-ripening, early spring and fall, are dry. This, probably, is also the case in Florida at the points where date culture is said to have proved successful. It is an established fact that date culture is a success in Southern Sonora and Lower California, and we know that the climate of Upper California possesses the most important condition for date-growing, viz., that of a long rainless season, which seems to compensate for the less amount of actual solar heat, the former condition being so important that its fulfillment enables the date to ripen as far north as 38° northern latitude, a circumstance I shall refer to later. The date-palms found at the old missions in Upper California are unfortunately very few, and have for many years grown without proper care.
At the mission church in San Diego large trees, perhaps more than a hundred years old, are still living; and while they produce fruit every year this never seems to mature. The location where they grow is very dry, and as no attention whatever is paid to the fertilization of the flower, it is not strange that the fruit should not ripen. Beside these, there exist several other date-palms scattered through the town of San Diego, none of which according to the information I have been able to obtain, ever matured fruit.
Farther up the coast, in Los Angeles County, especially in the beautiful valley of San Gabriel, date-palms may be seen here and there; but here also there is no record of ripened fruit. The same is the case at Santa Barbara, at W. W. Hollister's farm where a number of date palms are growing, characterized by a stunted, bush-like appearance. Unlike these in aspect are some beautiful trees near the mission church of San Buena Ventura, their tall, palm-like growth being striking to every one. Whether this difference in appearance is due to variety or to climate or to both, it is difficult to say, though the similarity of the latter points to the difference in variety as being the cause. As to the production of fruit we have not been able to obtain any reliable information.
DATE-GROWING IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA.
At the Rixford farm, near Sonoma, Sonoma County, an interesting case of a young male palm flowering at the age of six years from the seed was reported by Mr. J. P. Rixford some two years ago. The male spike from this tree exhibited at the meeting of the California State Horticultural Society had apparently well-developed pollen, characterized by the penetrating but agreeable odor belonging to the date flower. As there was no female tree blooming there at the time, fruit in this case was out of the question.
That, on the whole, fruit could have matured properly, even under favorable circumstances, in any of the localities mentioned is rather doubtful. San Diego, although far enough south, has a very moderate average summer temperature, owing to its proximity to the sea. The same objection applies to the wore northerly points at, Santa Barbara and Buena Ventura, as even the portions of Africa to the seaward of the Atlas mountains is unsuited for date culture. And while the more protected valley of San Gabriel has a fine, uniform climate. very suitable for the orange, it has not the requisite amount of summer heat for ripening any but very early varieties, which of course would only be raised by accident from the dates of commerce, the source whence all these trees seem to have sprung. At the place in Sonoma mentioned above, the season must be considered altogether too short for maturing dates, unless it should be the New Algerian variety referred to in the California Horticulturist for the year 1877.
When it is taken into consideration that in most of the cases mentioned no particular care has been given to the date trees, and that in all cases they have been grown from seeds (a mode of propagation only practiced in very favorable localities, for the reason that the same variety does not perpetuate itself in this way any more than our apples and pears), it is not surprising that only negative results have been obtained. It is the more interesting to note some results of date growing in the northeastern part of Sacramento Valley, the Putah Creek and Vacaville region, It deserves mention that, although as far north as 38 degrees, this part of California furnishes the earliest fruit in the San Francisco market, even earlier than counties much farther south….
To save space, I now skip to FINAL CONCLUSIONS, that appear on Page 24 of the original text. GDK
FINAL CONCLUSIONS.
When we consider the climates of all the regions mentioned as true date countries, we see, as before remarked, a striking resemblance to that of the southern part of the Pacific States, and after what we have learned of local trials here it seems almost beyond question that date culture must at some future day become an important enterprise in many regions now considered comparatively worthless. The date would fill a blank in the list of our wonderfully diversified products with a crop of the more importance because of its peculiar requirements, which are such that it, in a large measure, need not transgress, on the province of any other fruit tree or cereals.
It would thus seem that the encouragement of date culture in suitable localities should engage the attention of the Government. The first step to be taken would be the introduction of the early varieties
from Spain and the northern part of Africa and Persia. This, as will be remembered, eau only be done by procuring sprouts (or suckers) from these varieties, or, what would be far better and safer, rooted plants grown from the sprout. If such plants were distributed to the proper parties we would doubtless have within five or six years some remarkable results.
Besides this, some experiments with hardy seedlings should be made in alkaline regions, in order to determine definitely how strongly charged might be the waters and soils in which the date-palm would flourish.
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Note by GD Klee: In 1997, the most recent year for which I can find statistics on the subject, the total annual value of California’s Date production was 22 million dollars. In 1883, when WG Klee published this monograph, the industry in the US, including California, was practically non-existent. And this is only one of the contributions of WG Klee.
http://fruitsandnuts.ucdavis.edu/rank.html
--------------------------------- ---------------------------
A 33 page monograph is titled Tropical and Semi-Tropical Fruits of California and New Mexico(October 15, 1887), a report on the condition of tropical and semi-tropical fruits of California, Arizona and New Mexico. It seems to be major article, but I have omitted it for reasons of space.
Other articles are omitted for the same reason. Among them are;
Summer and winter washes and remedies against insect pests. (1887)
and
The wooly aphis and its repression (1886)
Waldemar G. Klee and the biological “shot heard around the world." Editor’s comments: Gerald D. Klee
Waldemar G. Klee gained fame before his early death. In reviewing his contributions to agriculture and entomology I have discovered that he made important contributions to horticulture, but that he is most famous for his work in entomology. He played an important part in initiating the modern era of biological control of insect pests, as you will see below.
In his earlier work as a horticulturalist at the Agriculture Experimental Station at the University of California, Berkeley, WG Klee made major contributions to the California fruit industry, laying the foundations for the multibillion dollar industry it was to become after his death. In Waldemar’s time, California’s fruit production was limited in quantity and variety and growers were struggling with problems caused by insect pests that were accidentally imported from abroad. Waldemar introduced the cultivation of dates and other fruits that growers had not previously produced in commercial quality or quantity. His studies at the University of California
and around the State, also demonstrated methods of improving the cultivation of citrus and other fruits that had been grown commercially as early as the 1860’s.
Waldemar’s contributions didn’t end with horticulture. As noted above, the fruit trees (especially citrus groves) were soon attacked by insects that threatened to destroy the industry. Waldemar redirected his attentions from horticulture to entomology, and as State Inspector of Fruit Pests, he played a major role in saving the fruit trees from insect pests. Clearly, his title of Inspector, understated the breadth and depth of his actual role in combating insect pests. As noted above, Waldemar’s greatest fame is based on his work in entomology, which helped save the orchards from destructive insect pests, such as the cottony cushion scale. The insect, popularly known as Icerya purchasi cottony cushion scale, (Maskell) (Homoptera: Margarodidae) was accidentally introduced to California in about 1868. By the early 1880s it had become a devastating pest of citrus orchards in southern California, forcing growers out of the citrus industry.
To quote from one of many Websites on the subject, (See below) -- “The occurrence of the cottony cushion scale and the biological control program that brought it under control really initiate the modern era of biological control.” WG Klee had a major role in that process. The other players in the US were Charles V. Riley, Chief of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, and two of his assistants, Alfred Koebele and D. W. Coquillet, both of whom were stationed in Southern California.
“Native to Australia, the cottony-cushion scale is widespread throughout most subtropical and tropical areas and warmer temperate regions of the world (Kennett et al. 1999). It has a wide host range and has the capacity to weaken or kill mature trees. It is adapted to a wide range of climates and is a pest of numerous fruit and shade trees and shrubs, being especially important on citrus, mango and guava.”
“This particular project (i.e. the project involving cottony-cushion scale, in which WG Klee played a major role) was referred to by DeBach (1974), as the one that, "... established the biological control method like a shot heard around the world." It was apparently, the first such project anywhere that specifically sought, and found, ways of controlling insect pests by introducing other insects that preyed upon them. “The cottony-cushion scale was discovered on Acacia in Menlo Park, central California around 1868, from which is spread rapidly. Following its discovery on acacia in northern California around 1868, by 1886 its effect on the new citrus industry in southern California was devastating. Citrus growers tried washes and cyanide fumigation but these were not effective. Damage was so extensive that many growers abandoned or burned their trees and real estate values plummeted (DeBach 1974). Alarmed California horticultural officials began inquiries and enlisted the aid of Charles V. Riley, Chief of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Entomology. Riley emerged as the dominant figure in this project but others made more important contributions”. (Comment by GD Klee: For example, by this time, WG Klee had already been corresponding with growers and entomologists on several continents and he had learned that cottony cushion scale had originated in Australia. He soon imported its natural enemies from Australia. This saved the citrus orchards by bringing the cottony cushion scale under control, see below.)
“Around that time(1886-87), the California State Inspector of Fruit Pests, W. G. Klee, corresponded with W. M. Maskell in Auckland, New Zealand (Maskell had described the scale as a new species from Auckland in 1878) and with Frazer Crawford in Adelaide, Australia. Maskell told Klee positively that Australia was the native home (letter was published in the Pacific Rural Press, May 7, 1887). Subsequently Riley, who meanwhile had reconsidered where the country of origin might be and was suggesting Mauritius (letter to Pacific Rural Press, June 4, 1887), agreed that Australia was probably the native home (letter in Pacific Rural Press, March 4, 1888).
As a result of Klee's correspondence, Frazer Crawford with considerable effort collected and sent some live Cryptochaetum to Klee who liberated the flies on cottony-cushion scale in San Mateo County near San Francisco in early 1888 before Koebele sailed for Australia--ostensibly to get the same flies (DeBach 1974). This (Klee’s actions) probably resulted in Cryptochaetum's establishment because it eventually became common in California.” See link below.
http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/biotact/ch-35.htm#Klee
Klee and Koebele were cast into the dual roles of collaborators and competitors. Depending on which account one reads, the chief credit for halting the spread of cottony cushion scale belongs to Klee or to Koebele. My vote for Klee is not entirely due to family bias. WG Klee seems to have been the first in the US to identify Australia as the original source of cottony cushion scale and the first to obtain the insects that prey on it and the first to release it on cottony cushion scale in California. His monograph on insects includes discussions of his work with Lestophorus = (Chryptochaetum), in addition to his interest in utilizing other beneficial insects, such as Rodolia iceryae, a species of lady bug that preys on cottony cushion scale. Koebele certainly deserves recognition for his contributions, but Klee’s 1888 monograph on the subject shows his early and deep involvement in the field. That, in addition to reports of the success of his efforts, lends support to his having priority. His early death surely led to his work being overlooked as time went on, but historians have nevertheless been rediscovering him in recent decades. As far as I can tell, however, his seminal publications on the subject seem to have been entirely overlooked until I discovered them by means of a WORLDCAT search in 2001.
The link http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/biotact/ch-35.htm#Klee lends further support to Klee's priority by identifying him as the one who first succeeded in importing and successfully releasing Chryptochaetum in California. These comments are not meant to detract from Albert Koebele, who traveled widely and made many contributions to entomology before his death in 1924. By an interesting coincidence, Klee and Koebele were both born in Europe in 1853, Klee in Denmark and Koebele in Germany.
It is somewhat disappointing that Klee's monograph doesn’t go into greater detail on the subject of his results with Chryptochaetum, but that is probably due to the fact that the full results of his release of the flies onto the cottony cushion scale were not yet fully known at the time of this publication. He was to die after a long illness in 1891, less than three years after this monograph was published.
For lack of space, I am not reproducing the full article at this time. I reproduce parts of the first Chapter and then skip to the last Chapter (Ch.VIII). The early chapters contain descriptions of many types of insect pests and ways to control them, as well as photographs and engravings of plants and insects. Most of the control methods discussed involve physical and chemical methods (which often were ineffective), but in pages 27-28, of Chapter I, as well as in Chapter VIII, Klee discusses biological control methods, a field in which he was a pioneer. These methods were often dramatically effective.
On pages 27 and 28, he describes the parasitic fly, Lestophonus icerya,, which is otherwise known as Chryptochaetum. This predatory insect was a native of Australia and had been accidentally imported to California in 1868, as discussed in an earlier paragraph. Klee imported them and turned them lose on an insect pest called cottony cushion scale, that was destroying orchards.
http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/biotact/ch-35.htm#Klee
WG
Klee
National
Agricultural
Library
Special
Collections at): Charles Valentine Riley Collection
Box
16
Folder 270a Klee,
Waldemar
G. A Treatise on the Insects Injurious to Fruit and
Fruit
Trees of the State of
Office,
J.D. Young, Supt. State Printing, 1888. Note inside
front
cover reads, "Professor C.V. Riley, With
Compliments
Beneficial and Injurious Insects.
BY WG KLEE
PREFACE
To the honorable State Board of Horticulture:
Gentlemen: I herewith submit to your consideration this short treatise on Beneficial and Injurious Insects.
This was prepared in accordance with a resolution adopted by you at your November (1887) meeting. Some of the most destructive insects have been treated at some length, notably the fluted or cottony scale. In the preparation of this treatise, the works of Professor Riley, Professor Comstock, and that of the late Matthew Cooke were freely made use of.
I trust that this little publication will be judged charitably, as neither time nor knowledge has been sufficient to do justice to the undertaking. Respectfully submitted,
W. G. KLEE,
Inspector of Fruit Pests.
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA, October 12,1888.
CONTENTS
--------------------
CHAPTER I.
Insects sucking the fruit of plants 7
CHAPTER II.
General remedies for scale insects 36
CHAPTER III.
Larvae of lepidopterous insects infesting fruit 39
CHAPTER IV.
Moth larva boring into the wood, twigs, and roots 44
CHAPTER V.
Larvae of beetles boring into the wood of trees 48
CHAPTER VI.
Leaf-eating caterpillars 50
CHAPTER VII.
Miscellaneous insects feeding on foliage 56
CHAPTER VIII.
Beneficial insects 58
-----------------------------------
INJURIOUS INSECTS.
CHAPTER I.
INSECTS SUCKING THE SAP OF PLANTS.
Aphideans--- General mode of reproduction-Plum aphis-Honey dew-Woolly aphis—Remedies for the root form-Gas lime-Remedies for the branch form-Rosin solutions-Resistant stock-- Scale insects-Classification of the coccidae-Pernicious scale-Habits of Pernicious scale --Aspidiotus rapax-Rose scale-Scale insects affecting citrus trees-Aspidiotus nerii--Lecanium oleae--Remedies-Parasites-Lecanium hemisphericum-The brown apricot scale Icerya purchasi-Rate of growth of Icerya in different stages-Habits of Icerya--natural enemies-Banding of trunk-Gas remedies-Modes of treatment-The process--Doses of gets according to size of trees-Dry gas-The titus fumigator-Cost of treatment--Mealy bugs
APHIDEANS.
The insects of this family, like the scale insects, belong to the Order Hemiptera
They take their nourishment direct from the trees, by inserting their beaks into the bark. Most of them work only on the soft, tender, and sappy shoots although some, as the woolly aphis find attachment on the wounds 4 older growth, as well as on the roots. These insects are remarkable for their powers of multiplication and extraordinary quickness of development and some scientists have calculated that a single aphis may in five generations be the progenitor of nearly six millions of descendants---a statement anyone watching their increase in twenty-four hours on a plum tree will hardly doubt.
Latrielle a French naturalist, claims that an average aphis produces twenty-five young in a day; but Mr. Buckton, an authority on aphidae, says that the highest number he has seen produced is eight, but as these are ready to increase in five days, it will be seen that the rate of increase is prodigious, and were it not for the natural checks, especially of certain insects—syrphus flies and ladybugs, in particular (see chapter VIII on these insects) --they would literally fill the earth.
GENERAL MODE OF REPRODUCTION.
In regard to this, Mr. Buckton says: of the males of some living forms, such as the Entomostracae, would seem to prove little more than that the influence of the male element sometimes is exerted at a minimum. That the male, in such cases, is not wholly absent might even show how necessary is the conjunction of primordial cells to perpetuate every species, though such may be deferred to very long periods. It may be pretty safely asserted that all originally proceed front impregnated ova, and at the end of their generations they again produce ova. We are in better position to state this, now that the true sexes of twelve or more species are known, and have been satisfactorily made out by dissection.
The egg-laying process happens at different seasons of the year according to the different genera. With very few exceptions, the egg-laying female oviposits late in summer and dies. The male generally appears before the female. The egg when newly laid is commonly yellow, but changes into shining black or brown. They are usually found at the base of twigs and are fastened by a gluey substance. The eggs of the aphis are hardy and will endure great cold, while strong caustic solutions likewise affect them little. From these eggs, which the individuals produce at a prodigious rate, are produced the young, being born alive and ready to produce again after five days, until, at the end of the season the cycle is finished and winter eggs are again laid.
There exists a very large number of species of aphis, each species being especially adapted to a certain family of plants, yet there are certain species of aphis common to very distinct plants. Thus, an aphis affecting the hop vine is also found on the plum, but such cases are exceptions to the rule.
Nearly all fruit tress are subject to the aphis; of which the most formidable and troublesome are those of the plum and the apple.
PLUM APHIS
The plum aphis make their appearance in the month of May, when the shoots are very sappy, and when taken in time can be checked so as to do little harm; but to do this the most thorough spraying is necessary. As one of the best remedies against them the rosin solution, given under the head of woolly aphis; is recommended.
WOOLLY APHIS.
Eriosoma lanigera. (Figure No. 1)
There is no insect so commonly met with in any old apple orchard as this, but a description to new planters will not be out of place.
In form, the woolly aphis resembles closely the green aphis so common on roses and other
plants; but its color is reddish-brown, and when crushed it yields a red juice, hence the German name Blutlaus, or blood louse. The insects are always surrounded by a whitish woolly substance, hence the name "woolly" aphis. Like all aphides, this species increases with astonishing rapidity, and only a few need be left on a tree to soon spread all over it. While the presence of the woolly aphis makes itself so conspicuous above ground on the branches, covering them as if with snow, yet the most serious trouble lies out of sight, at the roots, which, in our dry climate, they inhabit as freely as they do the branches, sapping the vitality of the tree to such an extent that the fruit becomes small and valueless. If allowed to go unchecked, the trees gradually die. To the apple tree, the woolly aphis is what the phylloxera is to the grapevine, sucking and causing swellings and knobs an over the roots.
Figure 1 here
Naturalists maintain that there are two forms of woolly aphis, one living on the roots and the other living on the branches, but they are gradually interchangeable.
At any rate, when a tree is affected on the root it will sooner or later be affected above ground.
Remedies for the Root Form.-Liberal dressing of ashes has a tendency of discouraging the aphis, especially in moist localities, where heavy dews often moisten the ground.
Gaslime.-About one and a half to two shovelfuls placed around each tree in such a manner that it will not come in direct contact with the bark of the tree, is one of the best remedies.
Add to this wood ashes placed directly around the base of the tree to the depth of one inch. Thus the migration to the upper part of the tree can be prevented.
Remedy Against the Branch Form.-For the treatment of small trees affected brushing with a rosin solution is the best; by diluting it sufficiently it can be sprayed on larger trees, and if thoroughly done it is the most effective wash I know of, being harmless to the tree.
In many instances the lady-bugs are so numerous that the aphis gain but little headway. Lady-bugs should always be protected, and persons ought to make themselves familiar with all their stages. (See chapter on Beneficial Insects. )
Rosin Solution.-One pound concentrated lye; four pounds rosin. Dissolve the lye in two quarts of water. Add the rosin; heat until dissolved and add two and a half gallons of water. Use one quart of the solution to the gallon of water. Use at a temperature of 100° F. This solution is well adapted to all kinds of trees affected with aphis.
RESISTANT STOCK.
Apple trees with very tough and wiry roots are but little affected by the woolly aphis, and some varieties exist that are altogether exempt. At the University grounds in Berkeley are two trees originally donated by the well known nurseryman, J. Rock. These trees, after five years' exposure in the midst of a badly affected orchard, have remained exempt. Such varieties must be propagated by root-grafting. No doubt other varieties are almost as good. The seedlings of Rawle's Janet and American Russet are considered resistant, and I believe those of Smith's Cider will likewise prove so. In Australia the Northern Spy bears the reputation of being exempt.
HONEY DEW.
The presence of all aphis is always accompanied by a sticky, viscid solution on the leaves; which is an excretion from the body of the aphis. Invariably where this is found ants make their appearance, and the ever present connection of aphis with ants is a most remarkable fact.
Not alone do ants naturally follow the aphis, but certain species have been known to care for their eggs and colonize them on roots in their underground galleries, and I have myself seen ants in regular procession carry aphis from the top of a walnut tree down to the ground. The ants greedily lick up the honey dew, and if not excreted fast enough, they will hasten it by pricking the aphis with their antennae.
Another significant fact connected with aphis is the black smut, which is invariably present whenever honey dew from any of the aphis or scale is secreted. This is a true fungus (Fumago salicina) , living on this honey dew alone and not penetrating into the plant. If the aphis is removed, the smut will invariably cease to grow.
END OF PAGE 9…. Pages 10 to 26, and 28 to 57 are omitted to save space.
Web editor’s note GD Klee
I have a complete copy of the monograph in my possession, which I copied from the original in the Library of Congress. Most of WG Klee’s discussion of beneficial insects is found in Chapter VIII, below. But pages 27 and 28 of Chapter I also contain important information about insects that protect fruit trees by parasitizing insects (In this case Icerya) that attack the trees (Beneficial insects).
Pages 27-28
In Other Countries.-In Miss Ormerod's treatise on the icerya is found an account of a new species of lady-bug sent her by a correspondent in South Africa, Mr. S. Bairstow, of Port Elizabeth. This species resembles our chilecorus in markings, being a bluish black, with two red spots, but is hairy; it has been named Rodolia icerya. Mr. Bairstow also sends a species of lace-wing fly, the larva of which he has found in large numbers. In a letter received in December last from Mr. Bairstow by myself, he says: "Without doubt in this province last season rodolia and chrysopa worked miracles, which, though the human eye may not discover accurately after effect, reason may safely promise beneficial results." Mr. Bairstow in his letter promised to send me specimens of these insects at the first opportunity
At the Santa Barbara Convention I read a small paper on the question of bringing parasites here, and the letters from Mr. Bairstow and Mr. F. S. Crawford, of Adelaide, Australia, were published in full, to which the reader is referred. The second small consignment arrived here in June, they having been sent in the ice chest on the steamer “Zealandia" in special care of the purser. A large wire cage was made so as to enclose a bush four feet high. Here the infested bugs, a species of monophlebus, [Monophlebus crawfordii (Maskell), a coccid found living on certain eucalyptus in South Australia.]were tied in a cloth to a branch of the tree-an English laurel. At the time of opening the box some of the flies had hatched, but were all dead. A visit three weeks after showed that no more had appeared. About two months after, however, I again visited the place and found, judging from the holes in the bugs (monophlebus), that from fifty to sixty flies had escaped.
So far, therefore, the experiment, I believe, will prove a success if the parasite is as well adapted to live on the icerya as on the monophlebus. ( It is, of course, yet too early to know if any progeny has been left by these flies.)
That there exists a very important agency in Australia that keeps the icerya in check, letters received by Professor Riley from various people, and especially those lately received by myself from Mr. Crawford, go to prove If this insect is the chief one, is now to be investigated by Mr. N. Koebele, who through Professor Riley's influence has been sent there.
An insect on which so much hope is based will naturally be of interest, and I publish in full its description.
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Page 28 The following description of the genus and species to which this interesting parasite belongs is taken from " Insect Life."* It was written by Dr. Williston for Professor Riley. The cut has been procured through the courtesy of the last named gentleman:
Lestophonus new genus. (Webpage Editor’s note : Lestophonus is another name for Chrytochaetum.)
Front, broad plane, with scarcely distinguishable hairs in upper part; antenna large, the first two joints short; the third two or three times as long as broad, reaching quite to the oval margin; arista wanting; face flattened, or gently concave; thorax without bristles; scutellum large, about half as long as the thorax, convex; abdomen short, ovate. rather broad, composed of five segments; thinly and bristly hairy; legs rather short and strong; middle tibiae, with a minute and indistinct spur at the top; all the tibiae without erect bristles on the outer side before the tip; wings short and broad; auxiliary vein wholly wanting; first longitudinal vein first terminating at the basal third, the costal vein at the tip of the third longitudinal; second and third longitudinal veins nearly parallel; the fourth vein gently divergent; penultimate section of the fourth vein, a little shorter than the ultimate section of the fifth; second basal cell and the distal cell united; anal cell distinct.
Notwithstanding the presence of the anal cell, the present species must, I believe, be located with the oscinidae. The absence of distinct bristles on the front, or, indeed, elsewhere on the body, will prevent its location with drosophilinae. In all the four specimens that I have examined, the arista seems entirely wanting. I cannot attribute its absence to injury. This remarkable character, together with the absence of the anterior basal cross vein and auxiliary vein, and the very large third antennal joint, will, I believe, render the genus easily recognizable. I can find the description of no genus that will apply, and I have but little or no hesitancy in describing it as new. Modillus, from Europe and Africa, seems to be its nearest relative.
Figure No. °1.
Lestophonus icerya, new species.
Female, 1.1 mm.; face, front; dorsum of thorax and scutellum deep blue, moderately shining; antenna, black oblong, with rounded ends; abdomen punctulate, deep shining green, in some specimens more or less blue; legs dark brown, or blackish brown; front tarsi more lutescent, or brownish yellow; veins grayish hyaline, the veins dark brown.
REMEDIES-
There is no species of insects (Other than icerya) existing in this State on which so many different remedies have been tried, and some of the simplest have proved the best.
Caustic solutions have the disadvantage of hurting the tree, and are not especially adapted to penetrate into the egg-sac, which on account of its peculiar texture repels most liquids.
Various soap solutions, some containing kerosene and some whale oil, have proved fair remedies, but can in my opinion not be equaled by the
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*"Insect Life" is a periodical published under the direction of the United States Ento- mologist, Professor C. V. Riley.
CHAPTER VIII.
BENEFICIAL INSECTS.
Ladybirds or bugs-The brown-necked ladybug-Lace-wing flies-Podabrus beetles-- Syrphus flies.
THE LADYBIRDS OR BUGS.
Coccinellidae
The usefulness of the ladybugs in destroying aphis of all kinds is familiar to most persons having observed these pretty little insects. Yet the very great role they play in keeping the myriads of aphis and scale insects in check is not as fully appreciated by many as it ought to be. Indeed, were it not for the interference of those insects, the very ground would be covered with aphis, and our grain, flowers, and fruit trees destroyed bv the various numbers of the homoptera or true bugs.
Among insects very conspicuous for their predaceous habits, I have especially had occasion to observe four families of insects. These are true beetles undergoing the usual transformation of the highly developed insect. The eggs are yellow, somewhat pointed, and laid in bunches on bark and leaves of trees or plants. The larva produced from this is a curious little creature, soft, worm-like, tapering to both ends, is provided with six legs, and is quite active. Some of the larva, as the ordinary ladybugs of the genus Coccinella, are naked bluish, with yellow spots; others, like Scymnus, are covered with short hairs, and those of the Chilocorus are provided with soft black spines. It is in the larval state that these insects do the most good. Thus it was larva I found feeding inside the egg-sac of the fluted scale.
Figure No. 44
It is in the larval state that the Chilocorus, or black red-spotted ladybug, does its best work feeding on the various scale insects, and it does its work sometimes so thoroughly that in some instances the scale has been apparently exterminated. In this State we have a number of ladybugs belonging to the genus Coccinella and Hippodamia. These, as a general thing, feed on aphis of all kind in their larval state, but are also very active in the imago state feeding on woolly aphis.
The Chilocorus has been referred to and the figure shows it in its various stages from larva to imago. The chrysalis shows the characteristic appearance of most ladybugs. The Chilocorus bivulneris is the most common species, having been observed from Shasta to San Diego. Preying on the native scales of the woods, it has gradually extended its operations to the orchards, and is met with in nearly every infested district and has probably done more good than any other species, unless it should be its modest and obscure little cousin, the brown-necked ladybug, to which we draw special attention.
THE BROWN-NECKED LADYBUG. (Figure No.45.)
Scymnus marginicollis.
From time to time attention of entomologists has been drawn to the members of the genus which all seem to have proved themselves very useful in preying on various scale insects, and even on phylloxera. In California the species figured above, Scymnus marginicollis, is quite common. In an article in the "Pacific Fruit Grower," Mr. D. W. Coquillett proposes the name brown-necked ladybug, and speaks of the larva having been found by Mr. A. S. Chapman and me on his place at San. Gabriel feeding on the eggs of Icerya purchasi.
The larvae of the species are of the usual form of ladybug larvae. The body is of yellowish-gray color, thickly covered with a white, mealy powder, which is gradually rubbed off, and with a covering of white matted hair; their heads are of a pale yellow color. They pass through the chrysalis form in about a week, and appear as fully developed ladybugs. Its head and throat are reddish brown. The wing cases are black, but covered with peculiar whitish hair, which are turned in the manner shown in figures. In the summer time, especially in a dusty country, fine particles of dust adhere to these and gives the insect a gray color so closely resembling the bark that they can only be noticed by looking very sharp for them.
I have often heard it stated that much damage has been done by the ladybug, and have indeed often seen them helping the diabrotica to devour overripe fruit and eating up the squash vines. It should be remembered by those people who have complained bitterly over the harm done by them, that were it not for their presence there would have been no squash vines to eat and no leaves or fruit on the trees, as the aphis would have destroyed them. As a general. thing little damage is done by the ladybug as compared with the good it does, as it is only ripe fruit that suffers.
LACE-WING FLY (Figure No. 46).
Chrysopa Species.
The engraving (Figure 47) shows the larva of this useful insect, which has been called aphis lion, on account of its great appetite for these insects. It is of grayish color, banded with white. The eggs are very conspicuous, planted as they were on a long stalk, resembling certain kinds of mold. The adult insect is delicate looking, with large transparent wings, large golden eyes (hence the name Chrysopa).
60
It is seen flying lazily around infected trees or plants.
The larva of the Chrysopa is known to devour fruit and vegetables, but this is an exception, it being a great help in the extermination of aphis, and we recall the fact of their usefulness in South Africa, in preying on the fluted scale, a habit they have sparingly taken to in this State also.
PODABRUS BEETLES.
The Podabrus is a genus of beetles, which also have several members which play an important part in keeping the aphidians in check. In Berkeley I have observed them to be very numerous certain seasons; large patches of grain being cleaned of aphis chiefly by their agency. The Podabrus is readily known by its yellow feathery antennae, yellow legs and body, and black wing covers. Their flight is slow, and they are readily caught when hovering over the grain.
SYRPHUS FLIES.
The appetite of the blind larvae of these insects is something enormous. This spring, when they were found very abundant, feeding upon the plum aphis, I took home at noon two leaves covered with the aphis and with two larvae on each, and left them on a table. In the evening I examined the leaves, and found nothing but empty skins of aphis. The aphis had all been devoured by the syrphus larvae, and these were still hungry for more. In Mr. Hubbard's report of insects injurious to the orange, I find the following precise and interesting description of the syrphus flies:
Whenever colonies of aphis are found on the orange there will almost invariably be found among them as slug like larva, which creep about among the plant lice with a leechlike movement, now contracting into an almost globular mass, and again elongating like the joints of a telescope. The minute terminal joint, which constitutes the head of the larva, is observed to possess a pair of retractile, horny hooks, which work forward and back, in and out of the mouth, like a rake. As the outstretched head and neck sweep the surface, and the jaws continue their raking movement until they strike the body of an aphis. Immediately, the jaw-hooks grapple their unresisting victim, and soon through the transparent walls of the body, the sucking stomach is seen pulsating and drawing through the oesophagus, in a continuous stream, the green juices of the plant louse.
When actively engaged in feeding, these larvae continue with the greatest voracity to empty one louse after another, until they have destroyed dozens of them; and their bodies distended with the contained juices become translucent green in color. When filled to repletion, the larva falls into lethargy, lasting two or three hours; during which the processes of digestion change the juices of the body to various shades of brown and dark masses of fecal matter gradually form in the intestines. The curious changes of color in the semi-transparent larvae are therefore due entirely to the condition of the body contents. The full fed individuals usually have a tinge of flesh color, owing to the formation of glandular, creamy masses of fat, which have a roseate view. When fasting through scarcity of food the fat is absorbed the fat is absorbed, and the body becomes dark brown and opaque. When feeding, the larva is translucent green; while digesting, the colors change to olive and brown, with distinct markings of reddish brown and black.
Transformations,--when full fed, the larva attaches itself by means of a pair of terminal prop legs, aided by a viscid secretion which it voids, and which, in drying, glues it to the surface of the plant. The body becomes distended and thickened, losing in length what it gains in girth. The skin of the larva is not split, or shed, but hardens and forms the puparium, which protects the true pupa within. In the puparium the shape of the larva is profoundly altered, the body joints are obliterated, the anterior end becomes swollen and broadly rounded, and the form tapers suddenly behind.
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The perfect fly issues by pushing off the convex end of the puparium, which splits at the suture between two of the old larval joints, and releases a circular cap in the shape of a watch-glass.
The duration of the egg and larval periods of these aphis-eating flies is short; the egg hatches in forty-eight hours after it is laid, and the larva becomes full grown and forms its pupa in five or six days. About ten days, the average time of insects having many broods, are passed in pupa. The reason of this extremely rapid development in the first two stages -the egg and larva-becomes obvious when we consider how brief is the existence of the aphis itself, and how suddenly its colonies appear and disappear-for the life of a colony of aphis is also very short. Upon the orange the aphis can feed only on the very tender young leaves; in a short time these harden, and then the colony must scatter; but frequently long before that time their numbers are reduced almost to extermination by enemies and parasites. As the syrphus larvae cannot follow the winged insects, they must make the best of their limited opportunities and feed quickly or perish of starvation. It is curious to mark how nature in the case of these insects has responded to the necessities of the situation and given their larvae restless activity, great rapacity, and destructive powers, notwithstanding their slow locomotion, and also a remarkably brief egg period, so that this wingless, blind, and almost legless maggot is enabled to compete with more perfectly organized rivals in the food struggle which takes place over every aphis colony.
Broods, etc.-The larvae of these syrphus flies feed only upon aphis, and depend upon them for their existence. They therefore appear and disappear with the colonies of the latter, and the broods may be supposed to follow rapidly one upon another during the seasons of growth,. when the appearance of new shoots upon the orange gives support to numerous colonies of aphis.
The seasons of growth in the orange, after the renewal of the folage in the early spring, depend in a great measure upon the prevalence of rains, and vary from year to year, but are usually three or four in number during the year. The colonies of aphis, and likewise their syrphus enemies, are most abundant in June and September.
Three representatives of the family Syrphida are found among aphis on the orange. They belong to the genus Baccha.
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